City and Regional Planning

After the proclamation of the Republic, there were 117 cities and towns planned and rebuilt in the Early Republican Period (1923-1940) in Turkey. The fundamental reason lying under the reconstruction of Turkish cities at that era was to develop a modernized nation and a new urban life for the young Republic. Success in urban planning, indeed, was evaluated as the success of the Republic.
Within planned 117 cities and towns, there were some cities that had more emphasis. Cities such as Ankara, İzmir, Adana, İzmit, etc. were being created as trade, agricultural or industrial foci to reduce the economic, political and social dominance of İstanbul within Anatolia and Rumelia. Having an anti-imperialist attitude against primacy of İstanbul, these cities were aimed to be developed to provide fair distribution of economic development, power and sources. For this reason, Ankara was declared as the capital city and the city of İzmir was planned as a trade focal and fair city. This paper reveals the spatial and economic roles attained to Turkish cities, specifically, Ankara and İzmir through urban planning in the Nation State of Turkey between the years 1923 and 1940.

This dissertation investigates emerging Alternative Agro Food Systems (AAFSs) in Turkey and does so by focusing on three niche initiatives in İzmir. Building on Regime Theory and the Multi-Level Perspective, it views these initiatives as strategic niches and explores their development processes by documenting their socio-technical practices.
Thus, this thesis fulfills the understanding of newly emerging alternatives and their transformation in Turkey with regard to their development processes in İzmir. Through exploratory qualitative multiple case study, this dissertation provided a meso-level investigation, documentation of the agro food system and micro-level investigation of Alternative Agro Food Initiatives in Turkey. A micro-level exploration
is undertaken by three niche initiatives in İzmir; (a) producer initiated Alternative Agro Food Niche- Gödence Cooperative, (b) consumer initiated Alternative Agro Food Niche- BİTOT and (c) producer-consumer collaborated Alternative Agro Food Niche-Foça Earth Market. Case studies, which are explored in İzmir, have provided a city-level investigation through examination of role of İzmir in the emergence and development of alternative agro food niches.
Case studies reveal characteristics and development processes of alternative food initiatives. Gödence revealed a niche that shows a degree of compatibility with the incumbent regime. This compatibility blunted the innovative capacity of the niche due to several structural reasons and path-dependencies. Stabilizing path-dependencies created
tendencies which restrain the diffusion of socio-technical practices. On the other hand, BİTOT and Foça Earth Market formed new niches. The creativity, talent to widen voluntarism and existing networks of Buğday Association provides BİTOT a web of volunteers to create, design and apply socio-technical practices. Foça Earth Market’s unique innovation capacity is lying under its artifice to use incumbent regime institutions
to create alternative socio-technical practices. The flexibility in the Foça Niche to motivate actors including those from mainstream regime has contributed to the innovative capacity of the initiative.

Economy Congress in 1923, even distribution of economic deve this reason, between 1923 and 1940, 117 urban plans for Turkish cities and towns were prepared (Karakaya, 2010; Keskinok & Karakaya, 2010). In addition, principle of etatism had gained its legitimacy in the establishment of national economic space through urban planning after 1929 crisis. The main policies to determine policy-oriented urban planning were establishment of a national economy and arrangement of the space in nation-state in this period (Keskinok, 2010). In the first and second development programmes (2; 1989b), there were regional foci created as agricultural and industrial development regions. Being one of the development regions, Adana, Ceyhan, Mersin, Tarsus and Gaziantep were taken to the agenda of planning to accomplish economic development of southern region. This study examines relation between Nation-Building process and urban planning process with an emphasis on agricultural and industrial development region established in the south of Anatolia by Hermann Jansen plans. The article gives answer for question addressing translation between Nation-Building process as a political concept and its correlation with urban planning as spatial context. Thence, this translation investigates the socio-spatial dynamics of Nation-Building process of Republic of Turkey with an emphasis on southern development region planned by Hermann Jansen.

Fertility rate is one of indicators for population change. Among several studies on determinants of total fertility rate, this article aims at revealing the relations and the patterns of socioeconomic determinants on total fertility rate. The study is handled in province level in Turkey with Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method. OLS method is preferred as a statistical method that estimates unknown parameters within a linear regression model. The linear relation between total fertility rate and; (i) literacy, (ii) urbanization and (iii) female workforce has been tested in this study. The data and residuals' normal distribution proved that the proposed model performed well. Moreover, utilization of Durbin-Watson statistics showed non-existence of autocorrelation, Variance Inflation Factor examination showed no multicollinearity, and Breush-Pagan Test and Koenker Test proved homoscedasticity. The results of the hypothesis test indicate the inverse relation of total fertility rate with literacy, female workforce in non-agricultural sectors and proportion of urban population. Öz Doğurganlık oranı nüfus değişiminin göstergelerinden biridir. Toplam doğurganlık hızının belirleyicileri üzerine yapılmış olan çok sayıda çalışma arasında, bu makalenin amacı sosyo-ekonomik belirleyicilerin desenlerini ve bu desenlerin toplam doğurganlık oranı ile ilişkisini ortaya koymaktırr. Çalışma, Olağan En Küçük Kareler (EKK) yönetimini kullanarak Türkiye'de il düzeyini ele almaktadır. EKK yöntemi, bir doğrusal regresyon modeli içerisindeki bilinmeyen parametreleri tahmin edebilen bir istatistiksel yöntem olarak tercih edilmiştir. Bu çalışmada toplam doğurganlık oranı ile (i) okur yazarlık oranı, (ii) kentleşme oranı ve (iii) kadınların iş gücüne katılım oranı arasındaki ilişki test edilmiştir. Verinin ve artığın (residual) normal

ÖZ
1923 yılında Cumhuriyet’in kurulması ile, bağımsızlık ve egemenliğin ancak ekonomik bağımsızlığın gerçeklemesi ve kalkınma yolu ile sağlanabileceği anlaşılmıştır. Bu strateji doğrultusunda, kalkınmanın ve ekonomik gelişimin başarısı, kır ve kent mekanının dönüşümü ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Denilebilir ki, Erken Cumhuriyet Dönemi’nde  planlı ekonominin temel aracı kent planlama ve kırsal alanda planlı gelişim olmuştur. Bu sebeple, 1923-1940 yılları arasında Anadolu ve Rumeli’de 119  adet kent ve kasaba planlanmıştır.

Erken Cumhuriyet Dönemi planlama deneyimi incelendiğinde, planlı kentlerin önemli bir kısmının ya sanayi odağı ya da tarımsal odak olarak planlandığı göze çarpmaktadır. İzmir, Adana, Gaziantep, İzmit gibi ülkesel çaptaki ulaşım ağında düğüm olan kentler sanayi kentleri olarak planlanmış iken, kırsal alanda, Orta Anadolu’da ve Ege’de bir takım tarımsal gelişim odakları oluşturularak kır-kent bütünleşmesinin sağlanması hedeflenmiştir. Orta Anadolu Bölgesi’nde tarımsal anlamda, planlı gelişim odaklarından bir tanesi ise Çorum ili ve çevresinde ki kırsal alanlardır. 1940 yılında Çorum, İskilip, Alaca, Osmancık ve Sungurlu  planlanmış kentler ve kasabalardır. Bu bağlamda, çalışma Çorum ili ve çevresinde ki kırsal alan için 1940 yılında yapılmış olan planlama çalışmalarını ve bu çalışmaların amaçlarını ve temel ilkelerini incelemektedir. Bu bakımdan, bu çalışma kent planları üzerinden bir okuma yaparak Çorum ve çevresinde 1940 yılında planlanmış olan kentlere tarımsal odak içinde hangi rollerin atandığını ve bu roller atanırken kent mekanının nasıl tasarlandığını incelemektedir.

Late 19th century and the early 20th century brought the genesis of urbanism as a new area of science. At that period, the problems caused by industrialization triggered the emergence of new urban problems. In today‟s industrialized western countries, the history and the development of urbanism is a known issue. Nonetheless, there is a different history of urbanism and the urban planning practices in the Republic of Turkey, which is located in the transition to the European geography in which modern urban planning arose.
Differing from the European industrialization, the industrial development process of Turkey accelerated after the proclamation of the Republic. Related to industrialization, the accomplishment of the Republican Revolution was seen as the accomplishment of a new life, a new urban space and a new urban economy. Thus, the science of urbanism became a critical issue to be handled. The heritages of the Ottoman Empire to Turkey in terms of urban planning had been some partial plans prepared for fireplaces, the Ottoman Map Office, efforts for a legislative structure for municipal issues, and a limited infrastructure and transport investments in populous cities such as İstanbul and İzmir (Karakaya, 2010: 66). In this respect, the establishment of the Republic of Turkey brought the efforts for an institutional “Urban Planning” and “Urbanism” practices. Between the years 1923 and 1940xviii, there were 116 cities and towns planned in Turkey (Karakaya, 2010: 2). As a socio-spatial process (Tekeli, 2005:7), the development and planning of urban and rural space had to be undertaken to achieve economic, social and political targets. Therefore, the Turkish urban planning was formed as a model that developed on the heritage of the Ottoman Empire and it was inspired by the European urban planning and urbanism applications to establish an independent economic and political vision (Karakaya, 2010: 94). The Republican urban planning practices, in this respect, were nourished from the Ottoman heritage and the European urbanism till 1940. The Ottoman heritage and its components are not the issue of this paper. The scope of this paper involves the European urbanism and urban planning that affected the composition and the direction of Turkish urbanism and penetrated into Turkish urban planning in the context of social and political dynamics decisive for the selection of European planning Ecoles.
As the urban planning practices, academic writings and the urban planners that were active between 1923 and 1940 in Turkey were examined, it is obvious that there is the dominance of French and German Ecoles on urban planning. Hence, this paper discusses the social and political determinants that created the dominance of Planning Ecoles of German and French effects on Turkish urbanism and planning. In this context, there might be posed such a question that “What were the social and political dynamics that created the dominance of German and French Ecoles in Turkish urbanism and urban planning till 1940s?”
In that direction, the aim of this paper is to discuss the political and social determinants that produced the dominance of French and German Planning Ecoles in Turkish urbanism and urban planning in the Early Republican Period.
The paper is divided into four main parts. First part is composed of a literature review that provides the general features of German and French Planning Ecoles in the early 20th Century. Following, the second part discusses the political and social reasons that created the dominance of French Ecole and German Ecole in Turkish urban planning practices and the composition of Turkish urbanism. In line with the formation history, the urban plans that were prepared between 1923 and 1940 are analyzed and inspected as the documentaryxix. In the third part, İzmir, İstanbul and Ankara planning practices in the Early Republican Period of Turkey are examined to clarify the political dynamics behind the planning practices. In this respect, the conflict between German and French planning approaches and applications in Turkey are revealed. After these debates, the conclusion part asserts the effects of the German and French urban planning Ecoles on Turkish urbanism and planning areas. These Ecoles became determinative for the urban plans of some important agricultural and industrial foci of the Early Republican Period. In this context, the city space, new urban life and the “society” that occurred as a result of urban planning practices are handled in terms of political and social initiatives determined the Ecole of the urban plan while concluding.

Since the late 1970s the agro-food industries of developing countries have been tranformed in ways which have been characterised as the global corporate food regime. Turkey is no exception to this process, with the enactment of an agricultural reform package by central government post-2000 to further liberalise the agro-food system. Recently, however, a series of economic, ecological, social and institutional constraints have produced new challenges and pressures on agro-food production and to the daily lives of agricultural producers. This article directs attention to emerging ‘urban’ responses to these pressures and what they imply for the future configuration of the agro-food system. In particular, we are interested in “urban transitions in the making” where new developments have started in urban areas that question some of the basic assumptions of the incumbent agro-food regime which may (or may not) eventually lead to a transition. 
We draw upon the case of Izmir, a major city region in Turkey where a variety of alternative agro-food initiatives have emerged since the late 2000s and there is strong evidence of aspirations and plans by local governments to undertake purposive agro-food transitions. Based on a documentary analysis of policy and strategy documents and interviews with policymakers, representatives of NGOs and various alternative agro-food initiatives, we firstly seek to address the bottom-up responses that have emerged as a response to landscape pressures, and run parallel (and in part in opposition to) the incumbent agro-food system. Secondly we seek to understand the ways in which Izmir is enacting strategic responses to a set of landscape pressures through the managed reconfiguration of the agro-food regime within the metropolitan area.
In doing this we aim to contribute to the recent attempts to conceptualise the geography of sustainable transitions. Based on our case study findings, we conclude that cities have differential capacities some of which may shape national transitions. We criticise the persistent conceptions of cities as sites for receiving transition initiatives and call for their conception as potential drivers of urban transitions towards sustainability goals.
Keywords: transitions in the making, purposive transition, governance of regime transition, urban transition, agro-food system

Following the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, urbanism became one of main issues in the agenda of the State. Between 1923 and 1940, 117 cities and towns in Anatolia and Rumelia were planned. After planning cities demolished during the War of Independence, in pursuit of Great Depression in 1929, Etatism and Populism principles became basis for policy-oriented development of urban space.
This study aims at examining İzmit Urban Plan in 1935 (by Hermann Jansen) in the context of urban planning approaches and 1930s’ political structure of the Republic of Turkey. In this perspective, this article is divided into three main parts. In the first part, I discuss 19th Century and 20th Century prevailing approaches of Urbanism in Europe and their relevance in Turkey’s Urban Planning Practice. In the second part, I manifest general structure, issues, and different periods of Early Republican Urban Planning in Turkey. In the third part, I discuss importance of İzmit Urban Plan in this period as a model in addition to analyzing basic design and planning principles of the Plan. Further, I scrutinize similarities and differences of the Plan with European urbanism models.

Müşterekler, kamusal alanlar, sivil eylemler ve doğa-insan ikiliği üzerinde süregelen tartışmalar, biyomerkezci görüşlerin insan-merkezci görüşlerin karşısında konumlanmasıyla son yıllarda artış göstermiştir. Dr. Dalya Hazar, " Rural-Ecological Commons: Case of Pastures in İzmir " (Kırsal-Ekolojik Müş-terekler: İzmir Mera Alanları Vakası) başlıklı doktora tezinde, kırsal-ekolojik müştereklerimiz olan biyoçeşitlilik, flora ve fauna (özellikle böcek çeşitliliği ve arıcılık), kırsal kalkınma, erozyonun önlenmesi ve kırsaldaki müşterek kültür ve geleneğin korunması açılarından çok önemli olan mera alanlarını planlama perspektifinden ele almaktadır. Müşterekler, kamu kullanımına ve erişimine açık, kullanım hakkının mül-kiyet hakkından üstün olduğu, herkese ait olan ortak zenginliklerimizdir. Müş-tereklerin türleri, hava, su, orman ve mera alanları gibi " ekolojik müşterekler " ya da yollar, kamusal alanlar ve toplu taşım sistemleri gibi kamu malı olarak tanımlanabilecek " kentsel müşterekler " olarak ikiye ayrılmaktadır. Mülksüz-leştirerek birikim, toprağın ve müştereklerin metalaşması, çitleme (çevreleme) hareketleri ve ekolojik sürdürülebilirliğin azalması, kullanım değeri değişim değerinden üstün olan müştereklere dair temel problemlerden bazılarıdır. Top-rağın metalaşması müştereklerin kullanım değerinin değişim değerine feda edilmesi ve özelleştirilmesini beraberinde getirir. Bu durumun müşterek alan ve özel alan arasında yönetsel ve sosyal bir ayrışmaya sebep olduğunu söyle-yebiliriz. 6360 sayılı Bütünşehir Yasası öncesinde köy tüzel kişiliğine bağlı olan köy ortak alanları kırsal müştereklerimizdir. Mera alanları, köylerin mahalle statü-süne geçirilmesi ile artan kentleşme baskısı sonucunda maden ve enerji sektör-leri ile kamu yatırımı talepleri önceliğiyle başka amaçlar için kullanıma tahsis edilebilmektedir. Yerelde merkezileşme, bugün halen devam etmekte olan uy-gulama karışıklıklarına sebep olmakta ve kır ve kent arasındaki ayrımı belir-sizleştirmektedir. Bu düzenlemeler sonucunda mera, tarım ve orman alanları kaybedilme riskiyle karşı karşıya kalmaktadır. Kırsal ve kentsel alanlar yapıları bakımından farklı ihtiyaçlara sahiptir ve mevcut yasada böyle tarif edilmemiş olsa da " kırsal mahalleler " ve " kentsel mahalleler " olarak ayrı şekilde değer-lendirilmeleri gerekmektedir. Öte yandan, 6360 sayılı Bütünşehir Yasası, kırsal alan planlamasını ve Büyükşehir Belediyeleri tarafından uygulamaların takibi-ni kolaylaştırması açılarından potansiyeller de barındırmaktadır. Hazar'ın tez çalışması, müşterekler ve kır-kent çeperi kavramları, mera alanları üzerindeki başlıca çatışmalar, ilgili yasal düzenlemeler, medya analizi, seçilen 50 köyde vaka alanı çalışması, eDPSIR nedensel analiz modeli uygula-ması ve tezin genel bulguları olmak üzere yedi bölümden oluşmaktadır. Araştırmasının birinci bölümünde, Hazar, müşterekler ve kır-kent çeperi kavramlarına değinmektedir. Doğanın ve müştereklerin metalaşması süreci, 17. yüzyıl İngiltere kırsalında başlayan ilkel birikim ve çitleme (çevreleme) ha-* İzmir Demokrasi Üniversitesi, Şehir ve Bölge Planlama Bölümü * Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Şehir ve Bölge Planlama Bölümü